Blockchain in the Quantum Era: A Rapid Review of Advances, Gaps, and Future Directions
Abstract
A computação quântica ameaça a segurança das blockchains, impulsionando a pesquisa em soluções que buscam desde sua resistência até sua integração com tecnologias quânticas. Esta revisão rápida analisa 36 estudos recentes para mapear avanços, lacunas e direções futuras. Os resultados mostram um foco dominante em integração com criptografia pós-quântica (66,7% dos estudos) em comparação com abordagens quânticas (22,2%). Além disso, mostra-se a baixa reprodutibilidade experimental, pois apenas 30,6% dos artigos fornecem dados suficientes para replicação. Destaca-se desafios como o custo de desempenho e interoperabilidade, concluindo com a defesa de benchmarks padronizados e maior foco na validação experimental para construir blockchains seguras para a era quântica.
Keywords:
Blockchain, Quantum, Post-Quantum, Reprodutibilidade, Interoperabilidade
References
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Roberto Avanzi, Joppe Bos, Léo Ducas, Eike Kiltz, Tancrède Lepoint, Vadim Lyubashevsky, John M Schanck, Peter Schwabe, Gregor Seiler, Damien Stehlé, et al. 2019. CRYSTALS-Kyber algorithm specifications and supporting documentation. NIST PQC Round 2, 4 (2019), 1–43.
Prithwi Bagchi, Basudeb Bera, Ashok Kumar Das, Sachin Shetty, Pandi Vijayakumar, and Marimuthu Karuppiah. 2023. Post Quantum Lattice-Based Secure Framework using Aggregate Signature for Ambient Intelligence Assisted Blockchain-Based IoT Applications. IEEE Internet of Things Magazine 6 (2023), 52–58. DOI: 10.1109/IOTM.001.2100215
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Usama Habib Chaudhry, Razi Arshad, Ayesha Khalid, Indranil Ghosh Ray, and Mehdi Hussain. 2025. zk-DASTARK: A quantum-resistant, data authentication and zero-knowledge proof scheme for protecting data feed to smart contracts. Computers and Electrical Engineering 123 (2025). DOI: 10.1016/j.compeleceng.2025.110089
Sumit Chauhan, Vaghawan Prasad Ojha, Shantia Yarahmadian, and David Carvalho. 2023. Towards Building Quantum Resistant Blockchain. In International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Energy Technologies, ICECET 2023. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. DOI: 10.1109/ICECET58911.2023.10389558
Léo Ducas, Tancrede Lepoint, Vadim Lyubashevsky, Peter Schwabe, Gregor Seiler, and Damien Stehlé. 2018. Crystals–dilithium: Digital signatures from module lattices. (2018).
Marcus Edwards, Atefeh Mashatan, and Shohini Ghose. 2020. A review of quantum and hybrid quantum/classical blockchain protocols. Quantum Information Processing 19, 6 (2020), 184.
Marco Fiore, Federico Carrozzino, Marina Mongiello, Gaetano Volpe, and Agostino Marcello Mangini. 2023. A Blockchain-Based Modular Architecture for Managing Multiple and Quantum-Safe Encryption Algorithms. In 9th 2023 International Conference on Control, Decision and Information Technologies, CoDIT 2023. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., 598–601. DOI: 10.1109/CoDIT58514.2023.10284090
Hadi Gharavi, Jorge Granjal, and Edmundo Monteiro. 2024. Post-Quantum Blockchain Security for the Internet of Things: Survey and Research Directions. IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials 26, 3 (2024), 1748–1774. DOI: 10.1109/COMST.2024.3355222
Daniel Gottesman and Isaac Chuang. 2001. Quantum digital signatures. arXiv preprint quant-ph/0105032 (2001).
Dev Gurung, Shiva Raj Pokhrel, and Gang Li. 2024. Performance analysis and evaluation of postquantum secure blockchained federated learning. Computer Networks 255 (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110849
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Sohel Ahmed Joni, Rabiul Rahat, Nishat Tasnin, Partho Ghose, and Md. Mahbub-Or-Rashid. 2024. Grainbee: A Quantum-Resistant Blockchain-Based Ration Distribution System with Hardware Security Modules. In 2024 IEEE Conference on Computing Applications and Systems, COMPAS 2024. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. DOI: 10.1109/COMPAS60761.2024.10796594
Stephen P Jordan and Yi-Kai Liu. 2018. Quantum cryptanalysis: shor, grover, and beyond. IEEE Security & Privacy 16, 5 (2018), 14–21.
Shashank Joshi, Arhan Choudhury, and R.I. Minu. 2023. Quantum blockchainenabled exchange protocol model for decentralized systems. Quantum Information Processing 22 (2023). DOI: 10.1007/s11128-023-04156-1
Hassan Khodaiemehr, Khadijeh Bagheri, and Chen Feng. 2023. Navigating the quantum computing threat landscape for blockchains: A comprehensive survey. Authorea Preprints (2023).
Hyunjun Kim, Wonwoong Kim, Yeajun Kang, Hyunji Kim, and Hwajeong Seo. 2024. Post-Quantum Delegated Proof of Luck for Blockchain Consensus Algorithm. Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 14 (2024). DOI: 10.3390/app14188394
Mandeep Kumar and Bhaskar Mondal. 2024. Quantum blockchain architecture using cyclic QSCD and QKD. Quantum Information Processing 23 (2024). DOI: 10.1007/s11128-024-04316-x
Sonitema Laia and Ari Moesriami Barmawi. 2024. Strengthening the Authentication Mechanism of Blockchain-Based E-Voting System Using Post-Quantum Cryptography. Jurnal Online Informatika 9 (2024), 159–168. DOI: 10.15575/join.v9i2.1305
Evgeny Milanov. 2009. The RSA algorithm. RSA laboratories 1, 11 (2009).
MITRE STEM. 2025. The Bloch Sphere. [link]. Acessado em: 8 de agosto. 2025.
V.S. Moskvin. 2024. Quantum Blockchain Architecture for Transportation Services. In 2024 Intelligent Technologies and Electronic Devices in Vehicle and Road Transport Complex, TIRVED 2024 - Conference Proceedings. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. DOI: 10.1109/TIRVED63561.2024.10769810
Eduart Ndokaj, Luca La Gatta, Osman Metalla, and Shpetim Pupa. 2024. Quantum-Enhanced Blockchain for Maritime Cybersecurity: Leveraging Advanced Random Number Generation to Secure Maritime Operations. In 2024 International Workshop on Quantum and Biomedical Applications, Technologies, and Sensors, Q-BATS 2024. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., 88–92. DOI: 10.1109/Q-BATS63267.2024.10873866
NIST. 2025. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Cybersecurity. [link] Acessado em: 7 de Agosto. 2025.
Mritunjay Shall Peelam and Vinay Chamola. 2024. Enhancing Security Using Quantum Blockchain in Consumer IoT Networks. IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics (2024). DOI: 10.1109/TCE.2024.3512791
Roman Rietsche, Christian Dremel, Samuel Bosch, Léa Steinacker, Miriam Meckel, and Jan-Marco Leimeister. 2022. Quantum computing. Electronic Markets 32, 4 (2022), 2525–2536.
Lucy Sharma and Arun Mishra. 2021. Analysis of Crystals-Dilithium for Block-Chain Security. In ICSCCC 2021 - International Conference on Secure Cyber Computing and Communications. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., 160–165. DOI: 10.1109/ICSCCC51823.2021.9478087
Mahendra Kumar Shrivas, Srujan Kachhwaha, Ashok Bhansali, and Satya Vir Singh. 2022. Quantum-resistant University Credentials Verification System on Blockchain. In Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE Nigeria 4th International Conference on Disruptive Technologies for Sustainable Development, NIGERCON 2022. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. DOI: 10.1109/NIGERCON54645.2022.9803153
Deepraj Soni, Kanad Basu, Mohammed Nabeel, Najwa Aaraj, Marcos Manzano, and Ramesh Karri. 2020. Falcon. In Hardware Architectures for Post-Quantum Digital Signature Schemes. Springer, 31–41.
Alexandru-Gabriel Tudorache. 2022. Design of an Exchange Protocol for the Quantum Blockchain. Mathematics 10 (2022). DOI: 10.3390/math10213986
Ranjitha Venkatesh and Smita Darandale. 2024. Enhancing Healthcare Security with Quantum Blockchain: Electronic Medical Records Protection. In 2nd IEEE International Conference on Networks, Multimedia and Information Technology, NMITCON 2024. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. DOI: 10.1109/NMITCON62075.2024.10699120
Chen-Xun Weng, Rui-Qi Gao, Yu Bao, Bing-Hong Li, Wen-Bo Liu, Yuan-Mei Xie, Yu-Shuo Lu, Hua-Lei Yin, and Zeng-Bing Chen. 2023. Beating the Fault-Tolerance Bound and Security Loopholes for Byzantine Agreement with a Quantum Solution. Research 6 (2023). DOI: 10.34133/research.0272
Ramona Wolf. 2021. Quantum key distribution. Vol. 988. Springer.
Shiwei Xu, Ao Sun, Xiaowen Cai, Zhengwei Ren, Yizhi Zhao, and Jianying Zhou. 2021. Post-Quantum User Authentication and Key Exchange Based on Consortium Blockchain. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Systems - ICPADS, Vol. 2021-December. IEEE Computer Society, 667–674. DOI: 10.1109/ICPADS53394.2021.00089
Zebo Yang, Haneen Alfauri, Behrooz Farkiani, Raj Jain, Roberto Di Pietro, and Aiman Erbad. 2023. A survey and comparison of post-quantum and quantum blockchains. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 26, 2 (2023), 967–1002.
Engin Zeydan, Jorge Baranda, and Josep Mangues-Bafalluy. 2022. Post-Quantum Blockchain-Based Secure Service Orchestration in Multi-Cloud Networks. IEEE Access 10 (2022), 129520–129530. DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3228823
Engin Zeydan, Luis Blanco, Josep Mangues-Bafalluy, Suayb S. Arslan, and Yekta Turk. 2024. Post-Quantum Blockchain-Based Decentralized Identity Management for Resource Sharing in Open Radio Access Networks. IEEE Transactions on Green Communications and Networking 8 (2024), 895–909. DOI: 10.1109/TGCN.2024.3432689,
Published
2025-10-27
How to Cite
BASTOS, Mateus; VELOSO, Alan; ABREU, Diego; SOUSA, Jeffson; EVARISTO, Bruno; ABELÉM, Antônio.
Blockchain in the Quantum Era: A Rapid Review of Advances, Gaps, and Future Directions. In: LATIN-AMERICAN SYMPOSIUM ON DEPENDABLE COMPUTING (LADC), 14. , 2025, Valparaíso/Chile.
Anais [...].
Porto Alegre: Sociedade Brasileira de Computação,
2025
.
p. 11-16.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5753/ladc.2025.16894.
