An ontology-driven serious game design for Course of Action Wargaming
Resumo
Introduction: The Brazilian Ministry of Defense intends to simulate the joint planning process for employing the Armed Forces, applying this simulation to Course of Action (COA) Wargaming — an analysis in which each friendly COA developed during this process is contrasted with possible enemy COAs. Objective: This work aims to design a serious game inspired by the concepts and resources of wargames to conduct the COA Wargaming. Methodology: We propose representing the COA Wargaming as an educational wargame to analyze decisions. We understood the COA Wargaming method, built an ontology for wargame execution, and developed a conceptual model to register the COA Wargaming provenance. Results: The research contributes (i) an OntoUML ontology of wargame execution events, (ii) a provenance model for COA Wargaming, and (iii) a web-based serious-game prototype. A perception-based evaluation with 65 military participants indicated positive perceived utility for supporting COA Wargaming.
Palavras-chave:
game design, ontology-driven design, wargames, COA wargaming
Referências
Almeida, J. P. A., Falbo, R. A., and Guizzardi, G. (2019). Events as Entities in Ontology-Driven Conceptual Modeling, pages 469–483. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-33223-5_39.
Appleget, J. (2022). Wargaming: a structured conversation. The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology, 22(2):79–82. DOI: 10.1177/15485129221134530.
Boron, J. and Darken, C. (2020). Developing combat behavior through reinforcement learning in wargames and simulations. In 2020 IEEE Conference on Games (CoG). IEEE. DOI: 10.1109/cog47356.2020.9231609.
Brazil (2020). Doutrina de Operações Conjuntas (MD30-M-01). Estado-Maior Conjuntos das Forças Armadas, Ministério da Defesa, Brasília-DF, 2nd edition. Volumes 1 e 2, Ostensivo.
Chance, G., Perder, C., Holland, R., and Halliday, C. (2024). Using ai in wargaming simulation as a multi-domain decision support tool. Technical report, Science & Technology Organization (STO), OTAN.
Christensen, K. D. and Dobias, P. (2021). Wargaming the use of intermediate force capabilities in the gray zone. The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology, 21(2):127–140. DOI: 10.1177/15485129211010227.
DeBerry, W. T., Dill, R., Hopkinson, K., Hodson, D. D., and Grimaila, M. (2021). The wargame commodity course of action automated analysis method. The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology, 21(1):17– 29. DOI: 10.1177/15485129211028318.
Dillon, R. (2013). Serious games and fun: an analysis. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 2(5).
Dresch, A., Lacerda, D. P., and Júnior, J. A. V. A. (2015). Design science research: método de pesquisa para avanço da ciência e tecnologia. Bookman, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
Eikmeier, D. C. (2015). Waffles or pancakes? operational-versus tactical-level wargaming. Joint Force Quarterly (JFQ), 78(3rd Quarter):50–53.
Elg, J. (2017). Wargaming in Military Education for Army Officers and Officer Cadets. Ph.d. in war studies, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom.
Fu, F.-L., Su, R.-C., and Yu, S.-C. (2009). Egameflow: A scale to measure learners’ enjoyment of e-learning games. Computers & Education, 52(1):101–112. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2008.07.004.
Guarda, T., Vaca, O. B., Pinguave, M. P., Maldonado, E. P., Augusto, M. F., Orozco, W., and Pinto, F. M. (2017). Wargames applied to naval decision-making process. In Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, pages 399–406. Springer International Publishing.
Guizzardi, G. (2006). On ontology, ontologies, conceptualizations, modeling languages, and (meta)models. In Seventh International Baltic Conference, Databases and Information Systems, pages 18–39, Vilnius, Lithuania.
Guizzardi, G., Baião, F., Lopes, M., and Falbo, R. (2010). The role of foundational ontologies for domain ontology engineering: An industrial case study in the domain of oil and gas exploration and production. International Journal of Information System Modeling and Design, 1(2):1–22. DOI: 10.4018/jismd.2010040101.
Guizzardi, G., Botti Benevides, A., Fonseca, C. M., Porello, D., Almeida, J. P. A., and Prince Sales, T. (2022). UFO: Unified Foundational Ontology. Applied Ontology, 17(1):167–210. DOI: 10.3233/AO-210256.
Guizzardi, G., Falbo, R., and Guizzardi, R. (2008). The role of foundational ontologies for domain ontology engineering: a case study in the software process domain. IEEE Latin America Transactions, 6(3):244–251. DOI: 10.1109/tla.2008.4653854.
Guizzardi, G., Fonseca, C. M., Benevides, A. B., Almeida, J. P. A., Porello, D., and Sales, T. P. (2018). Endurant Types in Ontology-Driven Conceptual Modeling: Towards OntoUML 2.0, pages 136–150. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-00847-5_12.
Guizzardi, G. and Halpin, T. (2008). Ontological foundations for conceptual modelling. Applied Ontology, 3(1–2):1–12. DOI: 10.3233/ao-2008-0049.
Guizzardi, G. and Wagner, G. (2005). Towards Ontological Foundations for Agent Modelling Concepts Using the Unified Fundational Ontology (UFO), pages 110–124. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany. DOI: 10.1007/11426714_8.
Haggman, A. (2019). Cyber Wargaming: Finding, Designing, and Playing Wargames for Cyber Security Education. Master’s thesis in information security, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, United Kingdom.
Hanley Jr., J. T. (2017). Changing dod’s analysis paradigm. Naval War College Review, 70(1):64–103. art. 5.
Hernandez, A. (2015). Post wargame experimentation and analysis: Re-examining executed computer assisted wargames for new insights. Military Operations Research, 20.
Johannesson, P. and Perjons, E. (2021). An Introduction to Design Science. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, 2nd edition. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-78132-3.
Kainikara, S. (2003). Effective wargaming: Impact of the changing nature of warfare. Technical Report 13, Air Power Development Centre, Royal Australian Air Force, Canberra, Australia.
Kipling, R. (1902). The elephant’s child. In Just So Stories. Macmillan, London.
Kohwalter, T., Clua, E., and Murta, L. (2012). Provenance in games. In Proceedings of the XI Brazilian Symposium on Computer Games and Digital Entertainment (SBGames 2012), pages 162–171. SBC.
Kornyshova, E. and Deneckère, R. (2010). Decision-Making Ontology for Information System Engineering, pages 104–117. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-16373-9_8.
Lacey, J. (2016). Wargaming in the classroom: An odyssey. War on the Rocks.
Lee, D. (1990). War gaming: Thinking for the future. Airpower Journal, Summer:40–51.
Makowiec, P. (2024). The use of wargames in the development of decision-making skills. Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces, 214(4):1–23. DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0054.8749.
Mangeli, E., de Classe, T. M., Macedo, H., Marques, P., Costa, L. M., Parreiras, M., and Silva, F. (2022). Games with purpose development methodology by ludology laboratory. In Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning: Proceedings of the Annual ABSEL conference, volume 49, pages 161–171.
McHugh, F. J. (1966). Fundamental of War Gaming. United States Naval War College, Newport, RI, United States, 3rd edition.
Miranda, J. and Cummings, C. (2023). Adapting. Marine Corps Gazette, 107(4):82–84. Ideas & Issues (Wargaming/Advertiser Content).
Moizer, J., Lean, J., Dell’Aquila, E., Walsh, P., Keary, A., O’Byrne, D., Di Ferdinando, A., Miglino, O., Friedrich, R., Asperges, R., and Sica, L. S. (2019). An approach to evaluating the user experience of serious games. Computers & Education, 136:141– 151. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.04.006.
NATO (2019). NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions. NATO Standardization Office, Brussels, Belgium, 2019 edition.
NATO (2023). NATO Wargaming Handbook. Allied Command Transformation, Norfolk, VA, United States.
Neves, A. J. (2008). A anatomia de um jogo de guerra didático. Revista da Escola de Guerra Naval, 12:79–95.
OMG (2017). Unified Modeling Language (UML), version 2.5.1. Technical report, Object Management Group (OMG).
Ouriques, L. (2025). Design de Jogos de Guerra Didáticos sobre o Confronto no Processo de Planejamento Militar. PhD thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
Ouriques, L., Barbosa, C. E., Kritz, J., and Xexéo, G. (2025). Toward an ontology of wargame design. IEEE Access, 13:78928–78958. DOI: 10.1109/access.2025.3566249.
Ouriques, L., Xexéo, G., and Barbosa, C. E. (2022). On the design of educational course of action wargaming. In Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning: Proceedings of the Annual ABSEL conference, volume 49, pages 29–46.
Pavek, M. K. and Starken, A. T. (2014). Web-based army repeatable lesson in operational combat (WARLOC). Master’s thesis in computer science - modeling, virtual environments, and simulation, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, United States.
Perla, P. (1990). The Art of Wargaming: A Guide for Professionals and Hobbyists. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD, United States.
Perla, P. (2022). Wargaming and the cycle of research and learning. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 5(1):197–208. DOI: 10.31374/sjms.124.
Perla, P. P. and Barrett, R. T. (1985). An introduction to wargaming and its uses. Technical Report CRM 85-91, Center for Naval Analyses (CNA), Alexandria, VA, United States. Unclassified.
Petri, G., Von Wangenheim, C. G., and Borgatto, A. F. (2019). Meega+: Um modelo para a avaliação de jogos educacionais para o ensino de computação. Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação, 27(3):52–81.
Sabin, P. (2015). Wargaming in higher education: Contributions and challenges. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 14(4):329–348. DOI: 10.1177/1474022215577216.
Savi, R., Wangenheim, C. G. v., and Borgatto, A. F. (2011). A model for the evaluation of educational games for teaching software engineering. In 2011 25th Brazilian Symposium on Software Engineering, pages 194–203. IEEE. DOI: 10.1109/sbes.2011.27.
United Kingdom (2017). Wargaming Handbook. Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre, Ministry of Defence, Shrivenham, United Kingdom.
United States (2013). Navy Planning (NWP 5-1). Department of the Navy.
United States (2020). Joint Planning - Joint Publication 5-0. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington, DC.
Vaz, A. (2025). Desenvolvimento e aplicação de um modelo de avaliação de jogos educacionais digitais. Master’s thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
Verdonck, M., Gailly, F., de Cesare, S., and Poels, G. (2015). Ontology-driven conceptual modeling: A systematic literature mapping and review. Applied Ontology, 10(3-4):197–227. DOI: 10.3233/AO-150154.
Wilkes, B. J. (2001). Silver flag: A concept for operational warfare. Air & Space Power Journal, 15(4):47–56.
Wong, Y., Bae, S., Bartels, E., and Smith, B. (2019). Next-Generation Wargaming for the U.S. Marine Corps: Recommended Courses of Action. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, United States. DOI: 10.7249/rr2227.
Work, R. (2015). Wargaming and innovation. Memorandum FEB 09 2015, Department of Defense, Washington, DC, United States. Ostensivo.
Xexéo, G., Mangeli, E., Silva, F., Ouriques, L., Costa, L. F. C., and Monclar, R. S. (2021). Games as information systems. In XVII Brazilian Symposium on Information Systems, SBSI 2021. ACM. DOI: 10.1145/3466933.3466961.
Yuksek, B., Guner, G., Karali, H., Candan, B., and Inalhan, G. (2023). Intelligent wargaming approach to increase course of action effectiveness in military operations. In AIAA SCITECH 2023 Forum. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. DOI: 10.2514/6.2023-2531.
Appleget, J. (2022). Wargaming: a structured conversation. The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology, 22(2):79–82. DOI: 10.1177/15485129221134530.
Boron, J. and Darken, C. (2020). Developing combat behavior through reinforcement learning in wargames and simulations. In 2020 IEEE Conference on Games (CoG). IEEE. DOI: 10.1109/cog47356.2020.9231609.
Brazil (2020). Doutrina de Operações Conjuntas (MD30-M-01). Estado-Maior Conjuntos das Forças Armadas, Ministério da Defesa, Brasília-DF, 2nd edition. Volumes 1 e 2, Ostensivo.
Chance, G., Perder, C., Holland, R., and Halliday, C. (2024). Using ai in wargaming simulation as a multi-domain decision support tool. Technical report, Science & Technology Organization (STO), OTAN.
Christensen, K. D. and Dobias, P. (2021). Wargaming the use of intermediate force capabilities in the gray zone. The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology, 21(2):127–140. DOI: 10.1177/15485129211010227.
DeBerry, W. T., Dill, R., Hopkinson, K., Hodson, D. D., and Grimaila, M. (2021). The wargame commodity course of action automated analysis method. The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology, 21(1):17– 29. DOI: 10.1177/15485129211028318.
Dillon, R. (2013). Serious games and fun: an analysis. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 2(5).
Dresch, A., Lacerda, D. P., and Júnior, J. A. V. A. (2015). Design science research: método de pesquisa para avanço da ciência e tecnologia. Bookman, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
Eikmeier, D. C. (2015). Waffles or pancakes? operational-versus tactical-level wargaming. Joint Force Quarterly (JFQ), 78(3rd Quarter):50–53.
Elg, J. (2017). Wargaming in Military Education for Army Officers and Officer Cadets. Ph.d. in war studies, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom.
Fu, F.-L., Su, R.-C., and Yu, S.-C. (2009). Egameflow: A scale to measure learners’ enjoyment of e-learning games. Computers & Education, 52(1):101–112. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2008.07.004.
Guarda, T., Vaca, O. B., Pinguave, M. P., Maldonado, E. P., Augusto, M. F., Orozco, W., and Pinto, F. M. (2017). Wargames applied to naval decision-making process. In Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, pages 399–406. Springer International Publishing.
Guizzardi, G. (2006). On ontology, ontologies, conceptualizations, modeling languages, and (meta)models. In Seventh International Baltic Conference, Databases and Information Systems, pages 18–39, Vilnius, Lithuania.
Guizzardi, G., Baião, F., Lopes, M., and Falbo, R. (2010). The role of foundational ontologies for domain ontology engineering: An industrial case study in the domain of oil and gas exploration and production. International Journal of Information System Modeling and Design, 1(2):1–22. DOI: 10.4018/jismd.2010040101.
Guizzardi, G., Botti Benevides, A., Fonseca, C. M., Porello, D., Almeida, J. P. A., and Prince Sales, T. (2022). UFO: Unified Foundational Ontology. Applied Ontology, 17(1):167–210. DOI: 10.3233/AO-210256.
Guizzardi, G., Falbo, R., and Guizzardi, R. (2008). The role of foundational ontologies for domain ontology engineering: a case study in the software process domain. IEEE Latin America Transactions, 6(3):244–251. DOI: 10.1109/tla.2008.4653854.
Guizzardi, G., Fonseca, C. M., Benevides, A. B., Almeida, J. P. A., Porello, D., and Sales, T. P. (2018). Endurant Types in Ontology-Driven Conceptual Modeling: Towards OntoUML 2.0, pages 136–150. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-00847-5_12.
Guizzardi, G. and Halpin, T. (2008). Ontological foundations for conceptual modelling. Applied Ontology, 3(1–2):1–12. DOI: 10.3233/ao-2008-0049.
Guizzardi, G. and Wagner, G. (2005). Towards Ontological Foundations for Agent Modelling Concepts Using the Unified Fundational Ontology (UFO), pages 110–124. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany. DOI: 10.1007/11426714_8.
Haggman, A. (2019). Cyber Wargaming: Finding, Designing, and Playing Wargames for Cyber Security Education. Master’s thesis in information security, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, United Kingdom.
Hanley Jr., J. T. (2017). Changing dod’s analysis paradigm. Naval War College Review, 70(1):64–103. art. 5.
Hernandez, A. (2015). Post wargame experimentation and analysis: Re-examining executed computer assisted wargames for new insights. Military Operations Research, 20.
Johannesson, P. and Perjons, E. (2021). An Introduction to Design Science. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, 2nd edition. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-78132-3.
Kainikara, S. (2003). Effective wargaming: Impact of the changing nature of warfare. Technical Report 13, Air Power Development Centre, Royal Australian Air Force, Canberra, Australia.
Kipling, R. (1902). The elephant’s child. In Just So Stories. Macmillan, London.
Kohwalter, T., Clua, E., and Murta, L. (2012). Provenance in games. In Proceedings of the XI Brazilian Symposium on Computer Games and Digital Entertainment (SBGames 2012), pages 162–171. SBC.
Kornyshova, E. and Deneckère, R. (2010). Decision-Making Ontology for Information System Engineering, pages 104–117. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-16373-9_8.
Lacey, J. (2016). Wargaming in the classroom: An odyssey. War on the Rocks.
Lee, D. (1990). War gaming: Thinking for the future. Airpower Journal, Summer:40–51.
Makowiec, P. (2024). The use of wargames in the development of decision-making skills. Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces, 214(4):1–23. DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0054.8749.
Mangeli, E., de Classe, T. M., Macedo, H., Marques, P., Costa, L. M., Parreiras, M., and Silva, F. (2022). Games with purpose development methodology by ludology laboratory. In Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning: Proceedings of the Annual ABSEL conference, volume 49, pages 161–171.
McHugh, F. J. (1966). Fundamental of War Gaming. United States Naval War College, Newport, RI, United States, 3rd edition.
Miranda, J. and Cummings, C. (2023). Adapting. Marine Corps Gazette, 107(4):82–84. Ideas & Issues (Wargaming/Advertiser Content).
Moizer, J., Lean, J., Dell’Aquila, E., Walsh, P., Keary, A., O’Byrne, D., Di Ferdinando, A., Miglino, O., Friedrich, R., Asperges, R., and Sica, L. S. (2019). An approach to evaluating the user experience of serious games. Computers & Education, 136:141– 151. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.04.006.
NATO (2019). NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions. NATO Standardization Office, Brussels, Belgium, 2019 edition.
NATO (2023). NATO Wargaming Handbook. Allied Command Transformation, Norfolk, VA, United States.
Neves, A. J. (2008). A anatomia de um jogo de guerra didático. Revista da Escola de Guerra Naval, 12:79–95.
OMG (2017). Unified Modeling Language (UML), version 2.5.1. Technical report, Object Management Group (OMG).
Ouriques, L. (2025). Design de Jogos de Guerra Didáticos sobre o Confronto no Processo de Planejamento Militar. PhD thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
Ouriques, L., Barbosa, C. E., Kritz, J., and Xexéo, G. (2025). Toward an ontology of wargame design. IEEE Access, 13:78928–78958. DOI: 10.1109/access.2025.3566249.
Ouriques, L., Xexéo, G., and Barbosa, C. E. (2022). On the design of educational course of action wargaming. In Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning: Proceedings of the Annual ABSEL conference, volume 49, pages 29–46.
Pavek, M. K. and Starken, A. T. (2014). Web-based army repeatable lesson in operational combat (WARLOC). Master’s thesis in computer science - modeling, virtual environments, and simulation, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, United States.
Perla, P. (1990). The Art of Wargaming: A Guide for Professionals and Hobbyists. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD, United States.
Perla, P. (2022). Wargaming and the cycle of research and learning. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 5(1):197–208. DOI: 10.31374/sjms.124.
Perla, P. P. and Barrett, R. T. (1985). An introduction to wargaming and its uses. Technical Report CRM 85-91, Center for Naval Analyses (CNA), Alexandria, VA, United States. Unclassified.
Petri, G., Von Wangenheim, C. G., and Borgatto, A. F. (2019). Meega+: Um modelo para a avaliação de jogos educacionais para o ensino de computação. Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação, 27(3):52–81.
Sabin, P. (2015). Wargaming in higher education: Contributions and challenges. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 14(4):329–348. DOI: 10.1177/1474022215577216.
Savi, R., Wangenheim, C. G. v., and Borgatto, A. F. (2011). A model for the evaluation of educational games for teaching software engineering. In 2011 25th Brazilian Symposium on Software Engineering, pages 194–203. IEEE. DOI: 10.1109/sbes.2011.27.
United Kingdom (2017). Wargaming Handbook. Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre, Ministry of Defence, Shrivenham, United Kingdom.
United States (2013). Navy Planning (NWP 5-1). Department of the Navy.
United States (2020). Joint Planning - Joint Publication 5-0. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington, DC.
Vaz, A. (2025). Desenvolvimento e aplicação de um modelo de avaliação de jogos educacionais digitais. Master’s thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
Verdonck, M., Gailly, F., de Cesare, S., and Poels, G. (2015). Ontology-driven conceptual modeling: A systematic literature mapping and review. Applied Ontology, 10(3-4):197–227. DOI: 10.3233/AO-150154.
Wilkes, B. J. (2001). Silver flag: A concept for operational warfare. Air & Space Power Journal, 15(4):47–56.
Wong, Y., Bae, S., Bartels, E., and Smith, B. (2019). Next-Generation Wargaming for the U.S. Marine Corps: Recommended Courses of Action. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, United States. DOI: 10.7249/rr2227.
Work, R. (2015). Wargaming and innovation. Memorandum FEB 09 2015, Department of Defense, Washington, DC, United States. Ostensivo.
Xexéo, G., Mangeli, E., Silva, F., Ouriques, L., Costa, L. F. C., and Monclar, R. S. (2021). Games as information systems. In XVII Brazilian Symposium on Information Systems, SBSI 2021. ACM. DOI: 10.1145/3466933.3466961.
Yuksek, B., Guner, G., Karali, H., Candan, B., and Inalhan, G. (2023). Intelligent wargaming approach to increase course of action effectiveness in military operations. In AIAA SCITECH 2023 Forum. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. DOI: 10.2514/6.2023-2531.
Publicado
29/09/2026
Como Citar
OURIQUES, Leandro; BARBOSA, Carlos Eduardo; ARGÔLO, Matheus; SIMÕES, Jonatas; ROCHA, Davi; XEXÉO, Geraldo.
An ontology-driven serious game design for Course of Action Wargaming. In: SIMPÓSIO BRASILEIRO DE JOGOS E ENTRETENIMENTO DIGITAL (SBGAMES), 25. , 2026, Goiânia/GO.
Anais [...].
Porto Alegre: Sociedade Brasileira de Computação,
2026
.
p. 771-784.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5753/sbgames.2026.25546.
