Crypto-Agile Ethereum Transactions: A Hybrid Post-Quantum Architecture for Besu
Resumo
Quantum computing represents a critical threat to classical ECDSA-based blockchains. This paper introduces a crypto-agile framework natively integrated into Besu, proposing novel transaction types that support hybrid post-quantum signatures (e.g., ECDSA-MLDSA44 using the Strong Nesting combiner) while addressing the lack of public key recovery. Evaluated under QBFT consensus, the results show that while local transaction pool ingestion remains performant, the cumulative overhead of validating large cryptographic payloads significantly delays block finalization and degrades global network throughput. This demonstrates that the primary bottleneck for post-quantum migration lies within the consensus layer rather than local transaction routing, offering key insights for future ledger optimization.
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Radanliev, P. (2024). Artificial intelligence and quantum cryptography. Journal of analytical science and technology, 15(1):4.
Shor, P. W. (1999). Polynomial-time algorithms for prime factorization and discrete logarithms on a quantum computer. SIAM review, 41(2):303–332.
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Babbush, R. et al. (2026). Securing elliptic curve cryptocurrencies against quantum vulnerabilities: Resource estimates and mitigations. arXiv preprint arXiv:2603.28846.
Bindel, N., Herath, U., McKague, M., and Stebila, D. (2017). Transitioning to a quantum-resistant public key infrastructure. Cryptology ePrint Archive, Paper 2017/460.
Buterin, V. et al. (2022). Eip-4844: Shard blob transactions. [link]. Accessed: Apr 2026.
Chen, J. et al. (2021). On the construction of a post-quantum blockchain for smart city. Journal of information security and applications, 58:102780.
de Haro Moraes, D. et al. (2024). Applying post-quantum cryptography algorithms to a DLT-based CBDC infrastructure: Comparative and feasibility analysis. Cryptology ePrint Archive, Paper 2024/1206.
Dell, H. et al. (2014). Exponential time complexity of the permanent and the tutte polynomial. ACM Transactions on Algorithms (TALG), 10(4):1–32.
Dhar, S. et al. (2024). Securing iot devices: A novel approach using blockchain and quantum cryptography. Internet of things, 25:101019.
Edwards, M. et al. (2020). A review of quantum and hybrid quantum/classical blockchain protocols: M. edwards et al. Quantum Information Processing, 19(6):184.
Fedorov, A. K. (2023). Deploying hybrid quantum-secured infrastructure for applications: When quantum and post-quantum can work together. Frontiers in Quantum Science and Technology, 2:1164428.
Fernandez-Carames, T. M. and Fraga-Lamas, P. (2020). Towards post-quantum blockchain: A review on blockchain cryptography resistant to quantum computing attacks. IEEE access, 8:21091–21116.
Fouque, P.-A. et al. (2017). Falcon: Fast-fourier lattice-based compact signatures over ntru. [link]. Accessed: May 2026.
Gao, Y.-L. et al. (2020). A novel quantum blockchain scheme base on quantum entanglement and dpos: Y.-l. gao et al. Quantum Information Processing, 19(12):420.
Garcia, C. R. et al. (2024). Quantum-resistant transport layer security. Computer Communications, 213:345–358.
Ghinea, D. et al. (2023). Hybrid post-quantum signatures in hardware security keys. In International Conference on Applied Cryptography and Network Security, pages 480–499. Springer.
Gupta, S. et al. (2023). End to end secure e-voting using blockchain & quantum key distribution. Materials Today: Proceedings, 80:3363–3370.
Imam, R. et al. (2021). Systematic and critical review of rsa based public key cryptographic schemes: Past and present status. IEEE access, 9:155949–155976.
Iovane, G. (2021). Murequa chain: Multiscale relativistic quantum blockchain. IEEE Access, 9:39827–39838.
Mosca, M. (2018). Cybersecurity in an era with quantum computers: Will we be ready? IEEE Security & Privacy, 16(5):38–41.
National Institute of Standards and Technology. Module-lattice-based digital signature standard. Technical report.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (2024). Stateless hash-based digital signature standard. Federal information processing standards publication (fips 205), National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.
Nielsen, M. A. and Chuang, I. L. (2010). Quantum computation and quantum information. Cambridge university press.
Nilesh, K. and Panigrahi, P. K. (2022). Quantum blockchain based on dimensional lifting generalized gram-schmidt procedure. IEEE Access, 10:103212–103222.
Nouma, S. E. and Yavuz, A. A. (2024). Trustworthy and efficient digital twins in post-quantum era with hybrid hardware-assisted signatures. ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications and Applications, 20(6):1–30.
Pedone, I. et al. (2021). Toward a complete software stack to integrate quantum key distribution in a cloud environment. Ieee Access, 9:115270–115291.
Radanliev, P. (2024). Artificial intelligence and quantum cryptography. Journal of analytical science and technology, 15(1):4.
Shor, P. W. (1999). Polynomial-time algorithms for prime factorization and discrete logarithms on a quantum computer. SIAM review, 41(2):303–332.
State Information Center of China (2023). Blockchain-based service network (bsn): Architecture, key technologies and applications. [link]. Accessed: May 2026.
Waterland, P. (2016). Quantum resistant ledger whitepaper. [link]. Accessed: Apr 2026.
Yang, Z. et al. (2023). A survey and comparison of post-quantum and quantum blockchains. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 26(2):967–1002.
Zeng, P. et al. (2024). Practical hybrid pqc-qkd protocols with enhanced security and performance. arXiv preprint arXiv:2411.01086.
Zohaib, M., Altuwaijri, F. S., and Hyrynsalmi, S. (2024). Integrating quantum computing and blockchain: Building the foundations of secure, efficient 6g technology. In Proceedings of the 1st ACM international workshop on quantum software engineering: The next evolution, pages 27–34.
Publicado
01/09/2026
Como Citar
DANTAS, J. B. S. et al.
Crypto-Agile Ethereum Transactions: A Hybrid Post-Quantum Architecture for Besu. In: SIMPÓSIO BRASILEIRO DE CIBERSEGURANÇA (SBSEG), 26. , 2026, Armação dos Búzios/RJ.
Anais [...].
Porto Alegre: Sociedade Brasileira de Computação,
2026
.
p. 408-423.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5753/sbseg.2026.29260.
