Segurança e Desempenho de Protocolos de Consenso Baseados em Prova para Corrente de Blocos
Resumo
A corrente de blocos é uma tecnologia disruptiva que revolucionará a Internet e nosso modo de viver, trabalhar e negociar. Apesar da inovação, os atuais sistemas públicos baseados em corrente de blocos, como Bitcoin e Ethereum, apresentam importantes limitações de segurança, desempenho e consumo excessivo de energia devido a seus protocolos de consenso baseados em prova de trabalho. Este artigo apresenta e compara as principais alternativas à prova de trabalho, com foco na segurança e desempenho de cada protocolo de consenso baseado em prova. Os protocolos baseados em prova utilizam o modelo de consenso probabilístico e são mais adequados para ambientes públicos com muitos participantes, como em um cenário de Internet das Coisas. O artigo destaca a tendência de centralização provocada pela remuneração da tentativa de prova, e o principais ataques dos consensos de prova de trabalho e prova de posse, assim como suas contramedidas.
Referências
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Bahack, L. (2013). Theoretical Bitcoin attacks with less than half of the computational power (draft). arXiv preprint arXiv:1312.7013.
Bessani, A. N., Sousa, J., and Alchieri, E. A. P. (2014). State machine replication for the masses with bft-smart. In IEEE/IFIP DSN, pages 355–362.
Bonneau, J., Felten, E. W., Goldfeder, S., Kroll, J. A., and Narayanan, A. (2016). Why buy when you can rent? In ICFCDS, pages 19–26. Springer.
Buchman, E. (2016). Tendermint: Byzantine fault tolerance in the age of blockchains. PhD thesis, University of Guelph.
Buterin, V. (2019). Proof-of-Stake FAQ. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Castro, M. and Liskov, B. (2002). Practical Byzantine Fault-Tolerance and Proactive Recovery. ACM Transactions on Computer Systems, 20(4):398–461.
Chen, L., Xu, L., Shah, N., Gao, Z., Lu, Y., and Shi, W. (2017). On security analysis of proof-of-elapsed-time (poet). In SSS, pages 282–297. Springer.
Conti, M., Kumar, E. S., Lal, C., and Ruj, S. (2018). A survey on security and privacy issues of Bitcoin. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 20(4):3416–3452.
Deirmentzoglou, E., Papakyriakopoulos, G., and Patsakis, C. (2019). A survey on longrange attacks for proof of stake protocols. IEEE Access, 7:28712–28725.
Douceur, J. R. (2002). The sybil attack. In International workshop on peer-to-peer systems, pages 251–260. Springer.
Ekparinya, P., Gramoli, V., and Jourjon, G. (2019). The attack of the clones against proof-of-authority. arXiv preprint arXiv:1902.10244.
Eletrobras (2017). Relatórios de sustentabilidade socioambiental. Technical report, Eletrobras S.A. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Eyal, I. and Sirer, E. G. (2018). Majority is Not Enough: Bitcoin Mining is Vulnerable. Commun. ACM, 61(7):95–102.
Finney, H. (2011). Best practice for fast transaction acceptance-how high is the risk? Disponível em https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=3441.msg48384msg48384. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Fischer, M. J., Lynch, N. A., and Paterson, M. S. (1985). Impossibility of distributed consensus with one faulty process. JACM, 32(2):374–382.
Gervais, A., Karame, G. O., Wüst, K., Glykantzis, V., Ritzdorf, H., and Capkun, S. (2016). On the security and performance of proof of work blockchains. In ACM SIGSAC, pages 3–16.
Heilman, E., Kendler, A., Zohar, A., and Goldberg, S. (2015). Eclipse attacks on bitcoin’s peer-to-peer network. In USENIX Security’15, pages 129–144.
Johnson, B., Laszka, A., Grossklags, J., Vasek, M., and Moore, T. (2014). Game-theoretic analysis of DDoS attacks against Bitcoin mining pools. In ICFCDS, pages 72–86.
Joshi, A. P., Han, M., and Wang, Y. (2018). A survey on security and privacy issues of blockchain technology. Mathematical foundations of computing, 1(2):121.
Karame, G. O., Androulaki, E., and Capkun, S. (2012). Double-spending fast payments in bitcoin. In ACM CCS 2012, pages 906–917.
Kiayias, A., Russell, A., David, B., and Oliynykov, R. (2017). Ouroboros: A provably secure proof-of-stake blockchain protocol. In CRYPTO 2017, pages 357–388.
Larimer, D. (2017). EOS.IO White Paper. Disponível em https://developers.eos.io/welcome/latest/protocol/consensus_protocol. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Li, W., Andreina, S., Bohli, J.-M., and Karame, G. (2017). Securing proof-of-stake blockchain protocols. In DPM/CBT, pages 297–315. Springer.
Li, X., Jiang, P., Chen, T., Luo, X., and Wen, Q. (2020). A survey on the security of blockchain systems. Future Generation Computer Systems, 107:841–853.
Melo, W., Carmo, L. F., Bessani, A., Neves, N., and Santin, A. (2018). How blockchains can improve measuring instruments regulation and control. In I2MTC, pages 1–6. IEEE.
Miers, C., Koslovski, G., Pillon, M., Simplício, M., Carvalho, T., Rodrigues, B., and Battisti, J. (2019). Análise de Mecanismos para Consenso Distribuído Aplicados a Blockchain, chapter 3. SBC.
Nakamoto, S. (2008). Bitcoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Oliveira, M. T. et al. (2019). Towards a performance evaluation of private blockchain frameworks using a realistic workload. In ICIN, pages 180–187. IEEE.
Olson, K., Bowman, M., Mitchell, J., Amundson, S., Middleton, D., and Montgomery, C. (2018). Sawtooth: An Introduction. The Linux Foundation.
Palma, L. M., Vigil, M. A., Pereira, F. L., and Martina, J. E. (2019). Blockchain and smart contracts for higher education registry in Brazil. IJNM, 29(3):e2061.
Pinno, O. J. A., Gregio, A. R. A., and De Bona, L. C. (2017). ControlChain: Blockchain as a central enabler for access control authorizations in the IoT. In IEEE GLOBECOM, pages 1–6.
Rebello, G. A. F., Alvarenga, I. D., Sanz, I. J., and Duarte, O. C. M. (2019a). Bsec-nfvo: A blockchain-based security for network function virtualization orchestration. In IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), pages 1–6.
Rebello, G. A. F. et al. (2019b). Correntes de Blocos: Algoritmos de Consenso e Implementação na Plataforma Hyperledger Fabric. In CSBC 2019 38o JAI, pages 1–59.
Schwartz, D., Youngs, N., and Britto, A. (2014). The Ripple Protocol Consensus Algorithm. Ripple Labs Inc White Paper.
Wang, W., Hoang, D. T., Xiong, Z., Niyato, D., Wang, P., Hu, P., and Wen, Y. (2018). A survey on consensus mechanisms and mining management in blockchain networks. CoRR, abs/1805.02707.
Xiao, Y., Zhang, N., Lou, W., and Hou, Y. T. (2020a). Modeling the impact of network connectivity on consensus security of proof-of-work blockchain. arXiv preprint arXiv:2002.08912.
Xiao, Y., Zhang, N., Lou, W., and Hou, Y. T. (2020b). A survey of distributed consensus protocols for blockchain networks. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 22(2):1432–1465.
Zhang, P. and Zhou, M. (2020). Security and trust in blockchains: Architecture, key technologies, and open issues. IEEE TCSS, 7(3):790–801.
Angelis, S. D., Aniello, L., Baldoni, R., Lombardi, F., Margheri, A., and Sassone, V. (2018). PBFT vs proof-of-authority: applying the CAP theorem to permissioned blockchain. In Italian Conference on Cyber Security (06/02/18).
Bahack, L. (2013). Theoretical Bitcoin attacks with less than half of the computational power (draft). arXiv preprint arXiv:1312.7013.
Bessani, A. N., Sousa, J., and Alchieri, E. A. P. (2014). State machine replication for the masses with bft-smart. In IEEE/IFIP DSN, pages 355–362.
Bonneau, J., Felten, E. W., Goldfeder, S., Kroll, J. A., and Narayanan, A. (2016). Why buy when you can rent? In ICFCDS, pages 19–26. Springer.
Buchman, E. (2016). Tendermint: Byzantine fault tolerance in the age of blockchains. PhD thesis, University of Guelph.
Buterin, V. (2019). Proof-of-Stake FAQ. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Castro, M. and Liskov, B. (2002). Practical Byzantine Fault-Tolerance and Proactive Recovery. ACM Transactions on Computer Systems, 20(4):398–461.
Chen, L., Xu, L., Shah, N., Gao, Z., Lu, Y., and Shi, W. (2017). On security analysis of proof-of-elapsed-time (poet). In SSS, pages 282–297. Springer.
Conti, M., Kumar, E. S., Lal, C., and Ruj, S. (2018). A survey on security and privacy issues of Bitcoin. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 20(4):3416–3452.
Deirmentzoglou, E., Papakyriakopoulos, G., and Patsakis, C. (2019). A survey on longrange attacks for proof of stake protocols. IEEE Access, 7:28712–28725.
Douceur, J. R. (2002). The sybil attack. In International workshop on peer-to-peer systems, pages 251–260. Springer.
Ekparinya, P., Gramoli, V., and Jourjon, G. (2019). The attack of the clones against proof-of-authority. arXiv preprint arXiv:1902.10244.
Eletrobras (2017). Relatórios de sustentabilidade socioambiental. Technical report, Eletrobras S.A. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Eyal, I. and Sirer, E. G. (2018). Majority is Not Enough: Bitcoin Mining is Vulnerable. Commun. ACM, 61(7):95–102.
Finney, H. (2011). Best practice for fast transaction acceptance-how high is the risk? Disponível em https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=3441.msg48384msg48384. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Fischer, M. J., Lynch, N. A., and Paterson, M. S. (1985). Impossibility of distributed consensus with one faulty process. JACM, 32(2):374–382.
Gervais, A., Karame, G. O., Wüst, K., Glykantzis, V., Ritzdorf, H., and Capkun, S. (2016). On the security and performance of proof of work blockchains. In ACM SIGSAC, pages 3–16.
Heilman, E., Kendler, A., Zohar, A., and Goldberg, S. (2015). Eclipse attacks on bitcoin’s peer-to-peer network. In USENIX Security’15, pages 129–144.
Johnson, B., Laszka, A., Grossklags, J., Vasek, M., and Moore, T. (2014). Game-theoretic analysis of DDoS attacks against Bitcoin mining pools. In ICFCDS, pages 72–86.
Joshi, A. P., Han, M., and Wang, Y. (2018). A survey on security and privacy issues of blockchain technology. Mathematical foundations of computing, 1(2):121.
Karame, G. O., Androulaki, E., and Capkun, S. (2012). Double-spending fast payments in bitcoin. In ACM CCS 2012, pages 906–917.
Kiayias, A., Russell, A., David, B., and Oliynykov, R. (2017). Ouroboros: A provably secure proof-of-stake blockchain protocol. In CRYPTO 2017, pages 357–388.
Larimer, D. (2017). EOS.IO White Paper. Disponível em https://developers.eos.io/welcome/latest/protocol/consensus_protocol. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Li, W., Andreina, S., Bohli, J.-M., and Karame, G. (2017). Securing proof-of-stake blockchain protocols. In DPM/CBT, pages 297–315. Springer.
Li, X., Jiang, P., Chen, T., Luo, X., and Wen, Q. (2020). A survey on the security of blockchain systems. Future Generation Computer Systems, 107:841–853.
Melo, W., Carmo, L. F., Bessani, A., Neves, N., and Santin, A. (2018). How blockchains can improve measuring instruments regulation and control. In I2MTC, pages 1–6. IEEE.
Miers, C., Koslovski, G., Pillon, M., Simplício, M., Carvalho, T., Rodrigues, B., and Battisti, J. (2019). Análise de Mecanismos para Consenso Distribuído Aplicados a Blockchain, chapter 3. SBC.
Nakamoto, S. (2008). Bitcoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system. Acessado em 20 de julho de 2020.
Oliveira, M. T. et al. (2019). Towards a performance evaluation of private blockchain frameworks using a realistic workload. In ICIN, pages 180–187. IEEE.
Olson, K., Bowman, M., Mitchell, J., Amundson, S., Middleton, D., and Montgomery, C. (2018). Sawtooth: An Introduction. The Linux Foundation.
Palma, L. M., Vigil, M. A., Pereira, F. L., and Martina, J. E. (2019). Blockchain and smart contracts for higher education registry in Brazil. IJNM, 29(3):e2061.
Pinno, O. J. A., Gregio, A. R. A., and De Bona, L. C. (2017). ControlChain: Blockchain as a central enabler for access control authorizations in the IoT. In IEEE GLOBECOM, pages 1–6.
Rebello, G. A. F., Alvarenga, I. D., Sanz, I. J., and Duarte, O. C. M. (2019a). Bsec-nfvo: A blockchain-based security for network function virtualization orchestration. In IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), pages 1–6.
Rebello, G. A. F. et al. (2019b). Correntes de Blocos: Algoritmos de Consenso e Implementação na Plataforma Hyperledger Fabric. In CSBC 2019 38o JAI, pages 1–59.
Schwartz, D., Youngs, N., and Britto, A. (2014). The Ripple Protocol Consensus Algorithm. Ripple Labs Inc White Paper.
Wang, W., Hoang, D. T., Xiong, Z., Niyato, D., Wang, P., Hu, P., and Wen, Y. (2018). A survey on consensus mechanisms and mining management in blockchain networks. CoRR, abs/1805.02707.
Xiao, Y., Zhang, N., Lou, W., and Hou, Y. T. (2020a). Modeling the impact of network connectivity on consensus security of proof-of-work blockchain. arXiv preprint arXiv:2002.08912.
Xiao, Y., Zhang, N., Lou, W., and Hou, Y. T. (2020b). A survey of distributed consensus protocols for blockchain networks. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 22(2):1432–1465.
Zhang, P. and Zhou, M. (2020). Security and trust in blockchains: Architecture, key technologies, and open issues. IEEE TCSS, 7(3):790–801.
Publicado
13/10/2020
Como Citar
REBELLO, Gabriel Antonio F.; CAMILO, Gustavo F.; GUIMARÃES, Lucas C. B.; SOUZA, Lucas Airam C. de; DUARTE, Otto Carlos M. B..
Segurança e Desempenho de Protocolos de Consenso Baseados em Prova para Corrente de Blocos. In: SIMPÓSIO BRASILEIRO DE SEGURANÇA DA INFORMAÇÃO E DE SISTEMAS COMPUTACIONAIS (SBSEG), 20. , 2020, Petrópolis.
Anais [...].
Porto Alegre: Sociedade Brasileira de Computação,
2020
.
p. 341-354.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5753/sbseg.2020.19248.
